Global Marketing Product Market Strategies

Question: Describe about the Global Marketing for Product Market Strategies . Answer: Introduction: In the present business environment, every organization is looking utilize the benefits of globalization in order to maintain its position in the market. Globalization has provided organizations the opportunity to achieve greater market share. Therefore, it creates direct impact on the revenue level of the organizations. In this report, the focus will be on an Australian organization namely Dick Smith Foods. The company is named after its owner Dick Smith. Over the years, the company has able to grow its revenue level largely. The unique marketing strategy of the organization has able to capture the attention of the expected customers. However, Dick Smith Food is trying to expand its business in the global market so that it can able to enhance its revenue level largely. In this report, the focus will be on market penetration strategy of Dick Smith Foods to enter in the Vietnam market. Market Analysis Size of the market and growth rates: As per the article by Piercy (2014), analysis of market size and potential growth rate of the market is critical at the time of introducing any product in the market. It has been assessed that Vietnam is facing increase demand in the packaged cheese foods. Furthermore, consumers of Vietnam are also becoming very conscious regarding the quality of the provided food products. As a result, it is providing organizations the opportunity to implement effective penetration technique in order to gain competitive advantage in the market. As mentioned by Spann, Fischer Tellis (2014) Vietnams packaged cheese product market has increased by 8% over the past few years. Therefore, it also providing Dick Smith Foods bigger market share to gain expected level of revenue. Population: As per the article by Kapferer (2012), the liberalization of the market have helped Vietnam to emerge as one of the fastest growing economies in the Asian region. The countrys GDP growth rate has been assessed 7.8% in the last decade. For that reason, Vietnamese population has been able to experience strength economic growth. For that reason, it is providing Dick Smith Foods the opportunity consider the entire population so that it can able to fulfill all the requirement of entering in the new market. Market Barriers and Market Drivers: As per the article by Foxall (2014) market barriers and drivers is another crucial factor that can make significant amount of impact on the new market development strategies of the organization. In order to penetrate Vietnam market, Dick Smith Food will have to consider government rules and regulations at the time of importing products in the market. Furthermore, the organization also has to consider the local taste and preferences in order to get close to its potential customers. On the other hand, per capita income of Vietnam people is increasing in a consistent manner. Therefore, it will help the company to establish its packaged cheese products effectively in the market. Organizational Analysis Customer Behavior: Dick Smith Foods deals in packaged cheese products industry. Therefore, the organization has to target children and household customers in order to gain fare share of the market. It has been assessed that the customers in Vietnam is more focusing towards the quality of the product. For that reason, Dick Smith Foods will have to ensure that the quality of the product has able to meet the satisfaction level of the customers. Furthermore, customers buying behavior heavily depended on the pricing structure of the organization. Therefore, Dick Smith Foods also will have to impose the pricing structure in such a way so that it can influence the people to spend for buying their product. 4Ps of marketing: Product Dick Smith Foods primarily deals in providing packaged cheese products. The company has able to gain popularity in the Australian market due to its exceptional quality. Furthermore, the company is continuously trying to develop new products in order to maintain its position in the market. Price The organization is focusing on implementing low pricing structure so that it can able to grab the attention of the new customers. Furthermore, the company is looking to initiate different seasonal offers so that people can able to recognize the products in a much more effective way. Place As per the article by Schmidt, Spann Zeithammer (2014) Vietnam does not have too much competition in the packaged cheese products as compared to any other economy. Therefore, it can be regarded as an ideal place to initiate market penetration strategy at the time of introducing new products in the market. Promotion In present business environment, promotion has become an integral part of the organization. Since, it helps to get close to the organization customers. Dick Smith Foods also will have to utilize unique strategy like direct marketing, social media marketing in order to impose its products in an effective way. Table 1: 4Ps of marketing (Source: Ryan, 2014) Competitor Analysis: As per the article by Berthon et al. (2012) organizations have to implement a systematic procedure in order to analyze all the competitors effectively. Therefore, Dick Smith Foods also have to implement systematic procedure in order to counter the strategies of its competitors. In Vietnam, Vinamilk is the largest packaged dairy product supplier. Therefore, Dick Smith Foods will have to impose its packaged cheese products in such a way so that it can able to gain fare share of the market. Figure 1: Competitors analysis (Source: West, Ford Ibrahim, 2015) Competitor Advantage of your Product: As Dick Smith Foods in planning to impose its product in the new market, it will have to include certain additional benefits in the product. For instance, Dick Smith Foods offers different size package for cheese products. Therefore, it will allow consumers to select any size according to their convenience. Furthermore, the company is focusing on offering different types of cheese products like pennant cheese, butter cheese so that customers can have more options to select a particular product from the market. In addition, Dick Smith Foods is also trying to utilize low pricing structure so that people does not have to face too many difficulties at the time of introducing the packaged cheese product in the market. Positioning Map of Competitors: As per the article by McDONALD (2016) positioning of the product is very important for gaining success in the market. Particularly, in order to impose a new product in the market successfully, positioning play a critical role. Thus, promotional campaign of Dick Smith Foods will have to be imposing in such a way so that it can able to grab the attention of the customers. Furthermore, positioning of packaged cheese product will have to be imposed in such a way so that customers can able to recognize it in the market effectively. Macro environment Porter five forces model: As per the article by Proctor (2014) Porter five forces help organizations to analyze the market situation in an effective way. The Porter analysis is analyzed as follows: Thereat from new entry: In Vietnam, developing new businesses have to go through several rules and regulations. Therefore, majority of the new businesses have faced lot of difficulties in order to place itself in an appropriate manner. Therefore, market entry rate is relatively low in the market. For that reason, it will be easier for Dick Smith Foods to penetrate in the market in an appropriate manner. Threat of substitutes: In present time, food industry has to face immense threat of industry competition. Furthermore, every organization is looking to introduce new product in order to sustain its position in the market. Therefore, different types of dairy product have came up in the market in recent time. For that reason, organizations have to face threat of substitute. Supplier power: In order to impose a product in the new economy, suppliers have to face a critical role. For that reason, suppliers possess huge amount of power that can affect the business strategies of the organization. Buyer power: As per the article by Turnbull Valla (2013), buyers do not possess too much power that can actually affect the business strategy of the organization. Furthermore, as the companies do not have to face challenges of new entrants, it can implement its business strategy in a much more effective way. Competitive rivalry: Competition in the packaged cheese product is intense in the world market. Therefore, all the companies are trying to expand its business to capture as much market as possible. As a result, Dick Smith Foods have to face lot of challenges at the time of introducing its product in the market. Figure 2: Porter five forces (Source: Majaro, 2013) Value Chain: As per the article by Kanagal (2013) value chain analysis helps organizations to utilize its internal activities in a much more effective way. Now, Dick Smith Foods also have to focus on several factors like infrastructure, procurement, human resource so that it can able to fulfill all the requirements of the organization. As the company is looking to introduce packaged cheese product in the Vietnam market, it will also have to focus on the cost effective logistic operation. Dick Smith Foods also have to focus on the quality of raw materials and after-sale services to develop an effective value chain for the organization. Figure 3: Value chain analysis (Source: Vilim Botterud, 2014) BCG Matrix: High Low High Star Vietnam is among one of the fewer Asian countries that is yet to be explored in a massive way. Therefore, it actually represents huge amount of opportunity for the organizations to penetrate effectively in the market. Furthermore, lesser amount of competition will also provide more opportunity for the organization. Thus, it represents higher possibility to gain success in the market. Question mark It has been assessed that many packaged food product organization has fail to increase its revenue level in the market. Now, as the competition level is comparatively low, it is expected that companies will able to have consistent growth in its revenue level. Thus, it actually creating question mark regarding the marketing strategies of the organization. Low Cash Cow In past few years, Vietnam has faced drastic change in the packaged dairy product industry. Due to liberalization, companies are presently facing more competition to sustain its position in the market. For that reason, it actually can cause challenges for Dick Smith Foods to penetrate successfully in the Vietnam market. Dog Several companies have failed considerably to handle the newly developed challenges of Vietnam market. As a result, many organizations has face drop in the revenue level. Thus, Smith Dick Foods also have to implement its market penetration plan in such a way so that it can actually able to fulfill the requirements of the customer in an effective way. Table 2: BCG Matrix (Source: Basu, 2014) SWOT Analysis: Strengths Weaknesses Dick Smith Foods is a popular name in the Australian market. Therefore, it will help the organization to grab the attention of the Vietnam people in a much more effective way. The company has able to develop a strong relationship with its customers and suppliers. For that reason, it can be expected that the company will able to fulfill requirements of the Vietnam market in an appropriate manner. Dick Smith Foods is trying to impose its package cheese product in a completely new market. Therefore, it has to face the challenges to new market. The company also has to invest huge amount to maintain the quality of the products. Opportunities Threats As mentioned earlier, Vietnam is among the few country that is yet to be imposed in a proper way. Therefore, it represents huge potential market for Dick Smith Foods to enhance its revenue level in an effective way. Due to liberalization, different policies and procedure has been relaxed. This will help Dick Smith Foods to export raw materials in Vietnam economy in an effective way. Competition is increasing in the packaged food product industry. Therefore, it is increasing the risk level for the organization. Different organization is utilizing low pricing strategy. As a result, revenue level is decreasing considerably. Table 3: SWOT Analysis (Source: Vahl, Rther Casarotto Filho, 2013) Conclusion: From the above analysis, it can be assessed that Dick Smith Foods have to consider several factors in order to introduce new product in the Vietnam market. Therefore, the company will have to implement effective marketing strategy in order to maintain its position in the market. Furthermore, the company will also have to focus on the implemented strategies of the competitors so that it can able to counter them effectively. References: Basu, S. (2014). Product market strategies and innovation types: finding the fit!.Strategic Direction,30(3), 28-31. Berthon, P. R., Pitt, L. F., Plangger, K., Shapiro, D. (2012). Marketing meets Web 2.0, social media, and creative consumers: Implications for international marketing strategy.Business horizons,55(3), 261-271. Foxall, G. (2014).Corporate Innovation (RLE Marketing): Marketing and Strategy. Routledge. Kanagal, N. B. (2013). Conceptualization of perceived value pricing in strategic marketing.Journal of Management and Marketing Research,12, 1. Kapferer, J. N. (2012).The new strategic brand management: Advanced insights and strategic thinking. Kogan page publishers. Majaro, S. (2013).International Marketing (RLE International Business): A Strategic Approach to World Markets. Routledge. McDONALD, M. A. L. C. O. L. M. (2016). 5 Strategic marketing planning.The marketing book, 86. Piercy, N. (2014).Export Strategy: Markets and Competition (RLE Marketing). Routledge. Proctor, T. (2014).Strategic marketing: an introduction. Routledge. Ryan, D. (2014).Understanding digital marketing: marketing strategies for engaging the digital generation. Kogan Page Publishers. Schmidt, K. M., Spann, M., Zeithammer, R. (2014). Pay what you want as a marketing strategy in monopolistic and competitive markets.Management Science,61(6), 1217-1236. Spann, M., Fischer, M., Tellis, G. J. (2014). Skimming or penetration? strategic dynamic pricing for new products.Marketing Science,34(2), 235-249. Turnbull, P. W., Valla, J. P. (Eds.). (2013).Strategies for international industrial marketing. Routledge. Vahl, F. P., Rther, R., Casarotto Filho, N. (2013). The influence of distributed generation penetration levels on energy markets.Energy policy,62, 226-235. Vilim, M., Botterud, A. (2014). Wind power bidding in electricity markets with high wind penetration.Applied Energy,118, 141-155. West, D., Ford, J., Ibrahim, E. (2015).Strategic marketing: creating competitive advantage. Oxford University Press.

Essay Samples For Grade - How To Get Good Essay Samples For Your Coursework

Essay Samples For Grade - How To Get Good Essay Samples For Your CourseworkYou can get great essay samples for grade, and other college papers, on the Internet. This is so easy, especially for first time students like you who don't know how to find essays samples for grade.If you're an average reader, it might be hard to understand what a good essay looks like, but there are some tips you should know before you buy these papers. These tips will help you get your essays looked at correctly and improve your grades. Here's how you do it.The first thing you have to do is to find good essay samples for grade that will suit your preferences. There are online sites that sell these papers, but they're not always the best option. The sites might not have your information, and they may not have the perfect type of paper you want. The online sites might have sample papers that are no good.Also, these online sites do not have good customer service. So, how do you find these papers? Easy. You sho uld find a site that offers great customer service.There are sites that provide good customer service and let you write your paper in a way that suits your interests. It will include suggestions for extra information that might be included, and other extras you might find useful. Good customer service helps the essay samples for grade to work well.You can find a great web site for writing essays, even if you are an average reader. Here's what you have to do.These online sites are great. Just make sure you have all your information before you buy an essay sample for grade. Just remember, when you get started with your college education, you should have a good idea of what type of paper you need to write.

Ben Franklin Essays (237 words) - Benjamin Franklin, United States

Ben Franklin Benjamin Franklin was born on January 17, 1706. His parents are named Josiah and Abiah Franklin. He lives with a family of 17 children. He's the youngest out of 10 boys. He lived on Milkstreet in Boston Massachusets. He went to elementry school for two years. He went to work for his brother James a printer in 1718. In 1724-1726, Governor William Keith of Pennsylvania, broke promises and left Benjamin stranded in London. He was a printer for a year and a half before returning to his home. In 1728, Benjamin Franklin sets himself up in the printing business. In 1730 he marries Deborah (Read) Rogers. Benjamin retires his job as a printer devoting his life to scientific reaserch and good works in 1748. In 1752, Franklin and his son William, lead his famous kite experiment. He wrote a letter to his friend about his amazing musical instrument called the armonica. In 1776, Franklin helps Thomas Jefferson write the Declaration of Independence. In 1784, he enevnted glasses commenting that it h elps him hear'' better because he can now see the food on his plate and see the peoples' mouths open when they speak French. In 1785, he signs the treaty, then goes back to Philadalphia. When he was 81, he went to the Constitutional Convention and made important contributions. On the night of April 17, 1790, he dies when he was 84 in Philadalphia. Bibliography n/a Biographies

Free Essays on Jerry Lee Lewis

Jerry Lee Lewis â€Å"Jerry Lee Lewis was known as a rebellious, rowdy piano player that would pound the keys and shock audiences. Nobody ever saw behavior like his in the 50's. He was the first to perform on stage and then set his piano on fire.† Jerry Lee was born on September 29th, 1935 at Turtle Lake on The Calhoun Plantation. He grew up on his parent's farm in the small town Ferriday, Louisiana. Jerry Lee is the second son to Elmo and Mary Ethel (Mamie) Lewis. His older brother, Elmo Jr., died when Jerry Lee was four years old. He has two sisters, Linda Gail and Frankie Jean, who also are musically talented. Jerry Lee ´s parents were both people of strong religion and musical backgrounds. Jerry ´s father actually signed with Sun Records in the fifties, although that was said to probably be Sam Phillips` last desperate attempt to keep Jerry Lee with his record company. His Mother Mamie was later a backup singer for a gospel song he performed known as â€Å"In Loving Memories†. Both of Jerry Lee`s sisters have recorded in the Sun Studios. Linda still has an ongoing career in the music industry. Frankie Jean runs the Ferriday family museum, and is also a competent singer. Elmo was a farmer, but a wild man who spent time in jail more than once. His corn harvests failed several years in a row, and he found comfort in his collection of Jimmie Rodgers records. Mamie was a gospel fan and a very religious woman. Gospel and country were Jerry Lee ´s basic influences. However he enjoyed rock and roll so much that he incorporated it into his own music. It was at his aunt ´s home that he first started to develop his own style. Not only him, but also his well-known cousins Jimmy Lee Swaggart and Mickey Gilley. His Father Elmo and mother Mamie quickly realized that Jerry Lee could be really good on the piano, so they mortgaged their farm, to buy Jerry Lee his first piano which was a Stark upright. Soon Jerry Lee... Free Essays on Jerry Lee Lewis Free Essays on Jerry Lee Lewis Jerry Lee Lewis â€Å"Jerry Lee Lewis was known as a rebellious, rowdy piano player that would pound the keys and shock audiences. Nobody ever saw behavior like his in the 50's. He was the first to perform on stage and then set his piano on fire.† Jerry Lee was born on September 29th, 1935 at Turtle Lake on The Calhoun Plantation. He grew up on his parent's farm in the small town Ferriday, Louisiana. Jerry Lee is the second son to Elmo and Mary Ethel (Mamie) Lewis. His older brother, Elmo Jr., died when Jerry Lee was four years old. He has two sisters, Linda Gail and Frankie Jean, who also are musically talented. Jerry Lee ´s parents were both people of strong religion and musical backgrounds. Jerry ´s father actually signed with Sun Records in the fifties, although that was said to probably be Sam Phillips` last desperate attempt to keep Jerry Lee with his record company. His Mother Mamie was later a backup singer for a gospel song he performed known as â€Å"In Loving Memories†. Both of Jerry Lee`s sisters have recorded in the Sun Studios. Linda still has an ongoing career in the music industry. Frankie Jean runs the Ferriday family museum, and is also a competent singer. Elmo was a farmer, but a wild man who spent time in jail more than once. His corn harvests failed several years in a row, and he found comfort in his collection of Jimmie Rodgers records. Mamie was a gospel fan and a very religious woman. Gospel and country were Jerry Lee ´s basic influences. However he enjoyed rock and roll so much that he incorporated it into his own music. It was at his aunt ´s home that he first started to develop his own style. Not only him, but also his well-known cousins Jimmy Lee Swaggart and Mickey Gilley. His Father Elmo and mother Mamie quickly realized that Jerry Lee could be really good on the piano, so they mortgaged their farm, to buy Jerry Lee his first piano which was a Stark upright. Soon Jerry Lee...

Practicum Journal 1 Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Practicum Journal 1 - Term Paper Example Be sure to delete any blank pages that appear between the weekly entries. Note: This document will serve as a cumulative journal. For each submission, you will add to the document so it contains all of your journal entries. Using no fewer than three peer-reviewed sources, analyze what you have observed within the context of your specialty using appropriate concepts, principles, and theories, giving special attention to observed events that vary from scholarly literature. (30 points) Explain how the problem, situation, or issue was handled in a manner that is consistent and a manner that is inconsistent with the theory, concepts, and principles detailed in the evidence. (30 points) There was a situation during my practicum experience where a day shift nurse was running over at 7.30 pm consequent to a patient experiencing a seizure 30 minutes prior. The day shift nurse could therefore not hand off all her patients as she was behind schedule. When the nurse supervisor was called, the night nurse stated that the situation would cause her to start her shift late and that it was unfair to her. According to Berkenstadt et al. (2008, p.159), the outgoing nurse must inform incoming nurse in regards to "Patient status and care, treatment and service, and any recent or anticipated changes in the condition of the patient". Conversely, bedside shift reports have become the conventional technique of handing off as it increases levels of patient satisfaction (Wakefield, Ragan, Brandt, and Tregnago, 2012). The fact that the night shift complained of unfairness is proof that she was not inclined towards bedside report hand off as an option as dictated by scholarly literature. A research aimed at establishing effective ways for hand offs cited by Philibert (2009, p.261) showed that "Frequent and time-constrained hand offs may frustrate the aims of the duty hour limits". This finding validates the night shift nurses concern that her shift would be affected. In terms of

World Paper Company - Finance Case 18 Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

World Paper Company - Finance 18 - Case Study Example The initial outlay cash flow is the total cost of the investment which is set at $18 million. The initial outlay consists of investment capital, net working costs, set up and transport cost, and training costs. After-tax salvage value of the old assets is subtracted from the initial outlay when making replacement decision (Tham & Pareja, 2004). The annual after-tax cash flows (ATCF) refer to the incremental after-tax cash flows that are expected from the investment. The company’s ATCF cash flows can either fall into these four categories: Tax savings resulting from depreciation (set at 40 percent), incremental income (positive cash flow) (set at 10 percent), incremental expenses (negative cash flow) or savings (positive cash flow), and lost cash flows (negative cash flow) resulting from the existing project activities (set at 15 percent) (Tham & Pareja, 2004). In investment scenario, lost cash flow is an opportunity cost. Terminal cash flow is the cash flows that are extra ordinary at the end of the project’s life. In the case study, it components will include shut-down costs, estimated salvage value (is set at zero), and recovery of the improved net working capital (is set at 10 percent of the recoverable capital). Reasons: (1) Worldwide Plant Company has not changed its WACC in 10 years. (2) The company has a policy to utilize its corporate Cost of Capital to analyze investment opportunities (Tham & Pareja, 2004). The Company should invest in the new longwood Woodyard. This is because the outlay capital ($18 million) and the incremental investment in working capital over the next 6 years will be of significant benefit to the

Developing a Compensator using Cerrobend Materials

Developing a Compensator using Cerrobend Materials ABSTRACT In external beam radiotherapy (EBRT), dose optimization is achieved by conforming the dose distribution to the shape of the intended target whilst minimizing radiation to normal tissues in close proximity to the target. This is achieved by modulating the intensities of the radiation across the radiation portals forming the irradiation geometry used for the treatment. Compensators may be used to achieve the above effect and can be used to approximate the fluence map by appropriate linear attenuation coefficient of individual beamlets making up the original open beam fluence. This may be done with a treatment planning system (TPS) with inverse planning capabilities or with a bolus placed on the surface of the patient at the beam entrance point. This work describe the procedures for designing, constructing and dosimetric considerations of cerrobend compensator for high energy photon beams, using the bolus option on the surface of the phantom planned with Prowess Panther TPS. Also correc tion factors that account with effects of field size, treatment depth and changes in thickness ratio because of using bolus were introduced. The cerrobend compensator was adjusted to account for beam divergence and reduction in dose contributed by scattered radiation. The correction factors were applied to the thickness ratio for determination of appropriate thickness of cerrobend that mimic bolus. The measurements were done in Theratron Equinox 100 cobalt-60 teletherapy unit using Cerrobend slabs constructed to account for divergence of the beam for the maximum field size considered in this research (3030 cm2). The narrow and broad beam linear attenuation coefficient for cerrobend were determined using simple attenuation model, varying the field size from 44 cm2 to 3030 cm2 field sizes in air, and also varying the thickness of cerrobend from 0.5cm to 4.6cm. The value found was 0.4574cm-1 and also the field size dependence of linear attenuation coefficient were investigated. The sca tter produced by cerrobend was accessed and evaluated. The scatter-to-primary ratio dose contribution was found to be negligible for small field size as reported by Dimitriadis (2002), and can cause error in the final dose calculation up to 13.3% for 3030 cm2 and 4.09 cm thickness of cerrobend. The cerrobend compensator was successful designed and constructed. The dosimetric accuracy for constructed cerrobend compensator was found to be deviating with that predicted with Prowess Panther Treatment Planning System with percentage error ranging from 0.365 to 25%, which is associated with limitations in producing precise thickness of cerrobend with the same accuracy of that generated by the equation 3.04 and limitations in generating flat surface topography and also the presence of air bubble in the cerrobend compensator which was not investigated in thiswork. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND Cancer is a significant health care problem. On average about half of all cancer patients are treated with radiation therapy worldwide (IAEA, 2004). Radiotherapy, also referred to as radiation therapy, radiation oncology or therapeutic radiology is one of the three modalities used to treat malignant disease (cancer) the other two being chemotherapy and surgery (Suntharalingamn et al, 2005). Radiotherapy uses ionizing radiation to eradicate cancerous cells with the least possible damage to normal tissues. The first therapeutic use of ionizing radiation was demonstrated in 1897 by Wilhelm Alexander Freud, a German surgeon before Vienna Medical Society when he demonstrated the disappearance of a hairy mole following treatment with x-ray (Hall, 2000). The first recorded experiment in radiobiology was also performed by Becquerel when he advertently left a radium container in his vest pocket and subsequently described the skin erythema two weeks later (Hall, 2000). The modalities of radiotherapy are divided into two types, tele-therapy and brachytherapy. Brachytherapy is a method of treatment in which sealed sources are used to deliver radiation at short distances by interstitial, intracavitary or surface application (Khan, 2010). Tele-therapy is a treatment modality in which the source of radiation is at a distance from the patient, also called external beam radiation therapy, it uses photons ranging from kilo voltage to megavoltage photons, and electron beams from linear accelerators or Co-60 tele therapy units. In External Beam Radiation Therapy (EBRT), the methodology of treatment depends on different factors, which may include the shape and size of the tumour to be treated within the patient, sparing of normal tissues within the vicinity of the target from excessive irradiation, financial constraints and the quest of optimization of radiation dose to the target. There are different treatment techniques ranging from 2-D conventional radioth erapy to more advanced Intensity Modulated Radiotherapy (IMRT). IMRT is a treatment planning and delivery technique that can greatly improve the process of conformal radiotherapy which refers to the process of blocking a beam with irregular shaped beam portal so that the dose delivered corresponds more closely to tumour whilst reducing the dose to normal tissue. In developing countries, most of the centrees are restricted to a Co-60 tele therapy unit with basic treatment planning and simulation capabilities. Patients present irregular surface topographies and tissue heterogeneities. According to Chang (2004), a compensator is a traditional tool for modern application and is an alternative IMRT delivery technique. In IMRT, the compensator is used not in the sense of compensating for missing tissue or tissue heterogeneity but as beam intensifier like dynamic wedges and multileaf collimators (MLC). The goal is to achieve dose uniformity throughout the whole target volume and, more importantly to spare critical structures according to the dose and dose volume constraint prescribed by the clinicians for specific patients (Jiango et al, 1998). Therefore, compensators are designed to produce an optimized primary fluency profile at the patient’s surface. This is achieved by modulating the intensities of the radiation across the radiation portals forming the irradiation geometry used for the treatment. There are various methods by which compensators can be made. According to Williams and Thwaites (2000), the three main types are grid-blocking system, contour system and a system using machined compensator. The first compensators made by Ellis et al. (1958) were constructed by stacking aluminum pillars. Another method reported by Lam et al. (1983) describes the construction of compensators from thin sheets of lead. Today compensators are more commonly made from molds filled with molten alloy or wax. Using molds is advantageous since it results in compensators with smoother surfaces and thus greater accuracy. To make a compensator for an IMRT practice, it is required to calculate the effective attenuation coefficient () of its materials, which is affected by various factors as field size, depth, off- axis distance, compensator thickness (Haghparast et al, 2013). A number of elements have been used to form compensators which include tungsten-epoxy mixture (Xu et al, 2002), Lucite (Khan et al, 1970), gypsum (Weeks et al, 1988), tin-wax (Van et al, 1995), tin (Chang et al, 2000), cerrobend (Waltz BJ et al, 1973), steel (Van et al, 1995), aluminum (Ellis et al, 1959), brass (Ellis et al, 1959; Tess, 2014), lead (Leung et al, 1974; Cunnighan et al, 1976; Andrew et al, 1982; Spicka et al, 1988), coper (Tess, 2014). In this study, a cerrobend compensator will be constructed using a simple attenuation model to determine its effective attenuation coefficient. Film and an ionization chamber will be used for dosimetric measurements and for verification of measured dose distribution and compared with those calculated with the PROWESS Panther TPS software at Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital. PROBLEM STATEMENT In external beam radiotherapy (EBRT), dose optimization is achieved by conforming the dose distribution to the shape of the intended target whilst minimizing radiation to normal tissues in close proximity to the target. Most dosimetric measurements are done on flat surface and homogenous medium, however patients surface is highly irregular and internal tissues are heterogeneous. The main aim of radiation therapy is to deliver uniform dose distribution within +7 % and –5 % (ICRU report 50, 1993) of the dose prescription without exceeding the tolerance dose of the critical structure around tumor volume. To achieve this goal, the above irregularities should be corrected. Thus different studies suggested and implemented bolus which is a tissue equivalent material placed at the surface of the patient to compensate the missing tissue. However, this technique doesnt spare the skin beneath the bolus. This is because, the buildup region is in the bolus and Dmax (depth of maximum dose) will be at skin surface. To solve such complications compensators have been introduced by different people on different approaches to correct both surface irregularity and tissue heterogeneity which is now done by using MLC based IMRT. Advanced technological innovations in anatomic and functional imaging modalities (CT, MRI, PET, and US) have led to improved visualization and the delineation of tumour. Radiation treatment planning and delivered techniques have also seen a marked improvement. Intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) provides a high degree of dose conformity to the planning target volume (PTV) and the conformal avoidance of organs at risk. Therefore radiation field is not only geometrically shaped to conform to the outline of the planning target volume at the beams eye view, but is also intensity modulated. The National Centre for Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine of Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital (KBTH) presently uses paraffin wax for construction of a compensator and cerrobend for shielding blocks, but there is a need to implement physical compensator based IMRT using materials which are available in the Centre and is inexpensive. This research will focus on design and construction and dosimetric considerations of cerrobend compensators to modulate the intensities of the radiation across the radiation portals forming the irradiation geometry used for the treatment. OBJECTIVES GENERAL OBJECTIVE The general objective of this work is designing and constructing a compensator using cerrobend materials. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES To clarify the effect of scattered photons generated within the compensator on head scatter factor. To evaluate dosimetric accuracy and dose coverage. To compare and evaluate measured and predicted data. To evaluate the variation of dose distribution by the compensator. SCOPE AND LIMITATION The scope of this thesis is in the area of the IMRT by means of physical compensators specifically using cerrobend which are manually fabricated. In most centres which are practicing IMRT, the construction of the compensator to provide the needed modulation is done by generating a fluency map of the radiation portal needed. This is done with a treatment planning system (TPS) with inverse planning capabilities or with a bolus placed on the surface of the patient at the beam entrance point. The bolus option will be used in this research as currently there is no TPS in the country that can do inverse planning. In this case, the cerrobend compensator will be used to replicate dosimetric effects of the bolus placed on the surface of the patient. According to Jiang et al (1998), the calculation of compensator thickness profile (an optimized primary fluency profile) is straightforward typically using the exponentially attenuation model. With reference to this, the shape of the compensator w ill be adjusted to account for beam divergence and reduction in dose contributed by scattered radiation. Thus the dosimetric considerations is part of the scope of this research. The measurement will be made from a Co-60 tele therapy machine at Korle Bu Teaching Hospital (KBTH). RELEVANCE OF THE PROJECT WORK In radiation oncology, a patient should get the best treatment option as much as possible in order to improve quality of patient care. So the expected results such as correction factors to account for reduction in scatter for using the cerrobend compensator to mimic bolus would have immense contribution to scientific and technical knowledge. From this work, it will be possible to implement IMRT delivering technique at National Centre for Radiotherapy and Nuclear medicine of Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital. The clinical implementation of IMRT technique requires at least two systems (Khan, 2010), which are: treatment planning computer system that can calculate non-uniform fluence maps for multiple beams directed from different directions to maximize dose to target while minimizing dose to critical normal structures. This may be done with a treatment planning system (TPS) with inverse planning capabilities or with a bolus placed on the surface of the patient at the beam entrance point. The s econd one, is a system delivering a non-uniform fluence as planned, so each of these systems must be appropriately tested and commissioned before the actual clinical use. The bolus option will be used in this research as currently there is no TPS in the country that can do inverse planning. The cerrobend compensator will be used to replicate dosimetric effects of the bolus placed on the surface of the patient. Similar research was done using different materials by Teclehaimanot (2014) in which the results were not in the clinically acceptable levels, so with this work we are expecting to reach such clinical levels with deviation less than 5%. Intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) is widely used in clinical applications in developed countries, for the treatment of malignant and non-malignant diseases. This technique uses multiple radiation beams of non-uniform intensities. The beams are modulated to the required intensity maps for delivering highly conformal doses of radiation to the treatment targets, while sparing the adjacent normal tissue structures. This treatment technique has superior dosimetric advantages over 2-dimensional (2D) and conventional 3-dimensional conformal radiotherapy (3DCRT) treatments. It can potentially benefit the patient in three ways. Firstly, by improving conformity with target dose, it can reduce the probability of in-field recurrence. Secondly, by reducing irradiation of normal tissue, it can minimize the degree of morbidity associated with treatment. Finally, by facilitating escalation of dose, it can improve local control (Cheung, 2006). Compensator based IMRT has a lot of advantages over MLC, many literature reported by Taherkhani (2010), report that the penumbra regions created by MLCs are larger than those generated by cerrobend blocks. Compensators provide more consistent dose, impose no limitations on the dose delivery rate, reduce skin surface doses, and because of the high density of the cerrobend allows improved skin sparing with low production rate of secondary electrons (Gray, 1979; Hine, 1951) reported by Shery (1987). It gives continuous intensity modulation, high spatial resolution, gives room to treat large field size, easy quality assurance (QA), shorter treatment time delivery with some drawbacks which are lack of automation (Chang, 2004), but there are some disadvantages like the therapist having to go to the treatment room to change the compensator in multiple fields and production cost, being labor intensive and time consuming. But now these drawbacks have been fixed in many developed countries by introducing a milling machine which is incorporated with the Treatment Planning System (TPS), and an automated compensator-IMRT technique (Javedan et al. 2008). Other main advantage of using cerrobend in this research are: its low melting point of 1580F (700C) which makes it easy to be recycled. It is readily available, inexpensive, high density (9.8g/cm3) and is used as shielding blocks in EBRT where doses are reduced by 95% or 99% of their initial value. As a material for compensation with high energy photons, cerrobend provides several advantages over tissue equivalent material (Shery, 1987). In the past, Cerrobend had not been considered as an excellent compensator material despite its high density. Recently Chang et al (2004) found that there are cerrobend filling techniques that produce smooth and accurate compensators with consistent density. Solidified Cerrobend in the compensator mold becomes one of the top choices of compensator material. And it can be easily shaped to the intended form with uniform density using the technique described by (Chang, 2004). Chang et al (2004) showed that compensator-IMRT technique has several benefits for delivering continuous intensity modulation and have shown that the finer resolution compensator-IMRT technique can also produce dosimetry that is closer to the ideal IMRT treatment (without any delivery limitation) compared with the segmental MLC IMRT technique. From this work the patients treated at the National Centre of Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine will benefit from all the advantages of IMRT techniques mentioned above. Consequently patients will also get a better and inexpensive treatment option.